A Country Study: Guyana, by Tim Merrill, 1993

Originally published as Guyana and Belize: country studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, edited by Tim Merrill, Washington, D.C.: The Division : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O, 1993.

A Country Study: Guyana Library of Congress Call Number F2368 .G893 1993

Please note: The current Country Study was previously in a multi-country volume. Chapter numbers reflect those used in the printed book. Guyana Foreword Acknowledgments Preface Introduction Guyana: Country Profile Country GEOGRAPHY SOCIETY ECONOMY Transportation and Communications Government and Politics National Security Chapter 1 - Guyana: Historical Setting (Scott B. MacDonald) The Early Years The Coming of the Europeans Transition to British Rule The Early British Colony and the Labor Problem Origins of the Border Dispute with Venezuela Political and Social Awakenings Nineteenth-Century British Guiana Political and Social Changes in the 1900s The Development of Political Parties Pre-Independence Government, 1953-66 The PPP'S First Government, 1953 The Interim Government, 1953-57 The Second PPP Government, 1957-61, and Racial Politics PPP Reelection and Debacle Independence and the Burnham Era Burnham in Power The Cooperative Republic From Burnham to Hoyte Chapter 2 - Guyana: The Society and Its Environment (Frederick J. Conway) Geography Terrain Hydrology Climate Population Demographic Profile Ethnic Composition Population Distribution and Settlement Patterns Urban Population Emigration Ethnic Groups Afro-Guyanese Indo-Guyanese Portuguese and Chinese Amerindians Development of Ethnic Identity Ideologies of Race and Class Family and Kinship Structure Afro-Guyanese Patterns Indo-Guyanese Patterns Religion Christianity Hinduism Islam Obeah and Amerindian Practices Cults Religion and Politics Education Education Policy and the Teaching Profession Primary Schools Secondary Schools Institutions of Higher Education Attitudes toward Education Health and Welfare Food and Diet Health Health and Welfare Services Chapter 3 - Guyana: The Economy (Brian D. McFeeters) Growth and Structure of the Economy History Preindependence Postindependence Structure Parallel Economy Infrastructure Government Policy The Economic Recovery Program Restoring Economic Growth Absorbing the Parallel Market Eliminating Payments Imbalances Normalizing International Financial Relations Results of the Economic Recovery Program Labor Agriculture Sugar Rice Forestry Fisheries Livestock Mining Aluminum Gold and Diamonds Industry Energy Supply Manufacturing Services Banking Transportation Communications External Economic Relations Foreign Trade Exports Imports Foreign Debt Balance of Payments Foreign Investment Foreign Aid Regional Integration Chapter 4 - Guyana: Government and Politics (Georges A. Fauriol) Constitutional Background Preindependence Constitutions Independence Constitution Constitution of 1980 Government Institutions Executive Legislature Judiciary Other National Institutions Local Government Civil Service Political Dynamics Electoral Process Political Parties People's National Congress People's Progressive Party Other Political Groups Interest Groups Trade Unions Media Religious Organizations Other Groups Foreign Relations Relations with the United States Relations with Venezuela Relations with Brazil Relations with Suriname Relations with Britain Relations with the Commonwealth Caribbean Relations with Communist Countries Chapter 5 - Guyana: National Security (Christopher S. Simmons) The Armed Forces Mission, Organization, and Capabilities Involvement in Political Affairs The Security Forces Mission and Organization Paramilitary Forces and Special Units Police Informal Paramilitary Groups Human Rights Violations The Courts and the Penal System Border Disputes Guyana-Venezuela Dispute Guyana-Suriname Dispute Appendices Appendix A. Tables Appendix B. The Commonwealth of Nations (Deborah Cinchon) Appendix C. The Caribbean Community and Common Market(Jeffrey Taylor) Appendix D. Caribbean Basin Initiative (Daniel Seyler) Bibliography Glossary ________________________________________________________________________________________ Guyana and Belize: country studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, edited by Tim Merrill, Washington, D.C. : The Division : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O, 1993. LC control no.: 93010956 LCCN permalink: http://lccn.loc.gov/93010956 Type of material: Book (Print, Microform, Electronic, etc.) Main title: Guyana and Belize : country studies / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress ; edited by Tim Merrill. Edition: 2nd ed. Published/Created: Washington, D.C. : The Division : For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O, 1993. Description: xxxiii, 408 p. : ill., maps ; 24 cm. ISBN: 084440778X Related titles: Belize. Guyana. Related names Merrill, Tim, 1949- Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. Subjects: Guyana. Belize. Notes: "Research completed January 1992." Includes bibliographical references (p. 345-369) and index. Additional formats: Also available on the Library of Congress Web site under individual titles: Belize, Guyana. Series: Area handbook series, 1057-5294 DA pam ; 550-82 LC classification: F2368 .G893 1993 Dewey class no.: 988.1 Geographic area code: s-gy--- ncbh--- Electronic file info: Belize http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/cntrystd.bz Guyana http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/cntrystd.gy Links: Belize Guyana CALL NUMBER: F2368 .G893 1993 Copy 1 -- Request in: Jefferson or Adams Building Reading Rooms c.3 Shelved At Reference - Hispanic Reading Room (Jefferson, LJ240) -- Status: Not Charged CALL NUMBER: F2368 .G893 1993 Copy 2 -- Request in: Jefferson or Adams Building Reading Rooms -- Status: Not Charged CALL NUMBER: Electronic Resource -- Request in: Online -- Link(s): Electronic copy from HathiTrust CALL NUMBER: F2368 .G893 1993 GLOBAL Copy 5 -- Request in: Reference - Law Library Reading Room (Madison, LM201) -- Status: Not Charged CALL NUMBER: D101.22:550 GovDoc X-Copy -- Request in: Reference - Newspaper/Current Periodical RR (Madison, LM133) -- Status: 1993 In Process 02-06-2003 CALL NUMBER: F2368 .G893 1993 ALAWE Iberia Latin America Copy 4 -- Request in: See Reference Staff. By Appointment Only (ABA Ref) -- Status: Not Charged _____________________________________________________________________________________< Bibliography -- Guyana (Guyana and Belize) Chapter 1 Adamson, Alan H. Sugar Without Slaves: The Political Economy of British Guiana, 1838-1904. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972. Akhtar, Shameen. British Guiana: A Study of Marxism and Racialism in the Caribbean. Dallas: Southern Methodist University, 1962. Augies, F.R., S.C. Gordon, D.G. Hall, and M. Reckford. The Making of the West Indies. London: Longmans, 1960. Avebury, and the British Parliamentary Human Rights Group. "Guyana's 1980 Elections: The Politics of Fraud," Caribbean Review, 10, Spring 1981, 8-11, 14. Burnham, Forbes. A Great Future Together. Georgetown: Government Printery, 1968. Burrowes, Reynold A. The Wild Coast: An Account of Politics in Guyana. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1984. Clementi, Sir Cecil. A Constitutional History of British Guiana. London: Macmillan, 1937. de Caires, David. "Guyana after Burnham: A New Era? Or Is President Hoyte Trapped in the Skin of the PNC?" Caribbean Affairs, 1, January-March 1988, 183-93. Despres, Leo A. Cultural Pluralism and Nationalist Politics in Guyana. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967. Deveze, Michel. Antilles, Guyanes, La Mer des Caraïbes de 1492 à 1789. Paris: Société d'edition d'ensegnement superieur, 1977. "Dr. Jagan's Address," Sunday Mirror [Georgetown], August 7, 1975, 9. Glascow, R.A. Guyana: Race and Politics among Africans and East Indians. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1970. Hope, Kempe Ronald. "Electoral Politics and Political Development in Post-Independence Guyana," Electoral Studies, 4, April 1985, 57-68. Inter-American Development Bank. Economic and Social Progress in Latin America: 1982 Report. Washington: 1982. Jeffrey, Henry B., and Colin Baber. Guyana: Politics, Economics, and Society--Beyond the Burnham Era. Boulder, Colorado: Rienner, 1986. Latin America and Caribbean Contemporary Record, 7: 1987- 88. (Ed., James M. Malloy and Edwards A. Gamarra.) New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990. MacPherson, John. Caribbean Lands: A Geography of the West Indies. London: Longmans, Green, 1963. Mandle, Jay R. The Plantation Economy: Population and Economic Change in Guyana, 1838-1960. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973. Manley, Robert H. Guyana Emergent: The Post-Independence Struggle for Nondependent Development. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1982. Moore, Brian L. "The Retention of Caste Notions among the Indian Immigrants in British Guiana During the Nineteenth Century," Comparative Studies in Society and History [Cambridge, United Kingdom], 19, No. 1, January 1977, 96-107. Nath, Dwarke. A History of Indians in British Guiana. London: Nelson, 1950. Neuman, Stephanie G. (ed.). Small States and Segmented Societies. New York: Praeger, 1976. Premdas, Ralph R. Party Politics and Racial Division in Guyana. (Studies in Race and Nations Series, No. 4.) Denver: University of Colorado Press, 1973. Ragatz, L.J. The Fall of the Planter Class in the British Caribbean, 1763-1833. London: Oxford University Press, 1928. Rodney, Walter. A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881- 1905. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. Singh, Chaitram. Guyana: Politics in a Plantation Society. New York: Praeger, 1988. Spinner, Thomas J., Jr. A Political and Social History of Guyana, 1945-1983. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. Swan, Michael. British Guiana: The Land of Six Peoples. London: HMSO, 1957. Chapter 2 Adamson, Alan H. Sugar Without Slaves: The Political Economy of British Guiana, 1838-1904. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972. Bacchus, M.K. Education for Development or Underdevelopment? Guyana's Educational System and Its Implications for the Third World. (Development Perspectives Series, No. 2.) Waterloo, Canada: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 1980. Balkaran, Sundat. Evaluation of the Guyana Fertility Survey, 1975. (Scientific Reports Series, No. 26.) Voorburg, Netherlands: International Statistical Institute, 1982. Bartels, Dennis. "Class Conflict and Racist Ideology in the Formation of Modern Guyanese Society," Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology [Toronto], 14, No. 4, November 1977, 396-405. Brereton, Bridget, and Winston Dookeran (eds.). East Indians in the Caribbean: Colonialism and the Struggle for Identity. (Papers presented to a symposium on East Indians in the Caribbean, The University of the West Indies.) Millwood, New York: Kraus International, 1982. Burrowes, Reynold A. The Wild Coast: An Account of Politics in Guyana. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1984. Demographic Yearbook, 1988. New York: United Nations, 1990. Despres, Leo A. Cultural Pluralism and Nationalist Politics in Guyana. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967. Drummond, Lee. "The Cultural Continuum: A Theory of Intersystems," Man [London], 15, No. 2, 1980, 352-74. Encyclopedia of the Third World, 1. (Ed., George Thomas Kurian.) New York: Facts on File, 1987. The Europa World Year Book, 1989, 1. London: Europa, 1989. Federal Republic of Germany. Statistisches Bundesamt. Länderbericht Guyana, 1987. (Statistik des Auslandes Series.) Wiesbaden: 1987. ------. Statistisches Bundesamt. Länderbericht Guyana, 1989, (Statistic des Auslandes Series.) Wiesbaden: 1989. Fredericks, Marcel, John Lennon, Paul Mundy, and Janet Fredericks. Society and Health in Guyana: The Sociology of Health Care in a Developing Nation. Durham, North Carolina: Carolina Academic Press, 1986. "Guyana." Pages 1506-9 in George Thomas Kurian (ed.), World Education Encyclopedia, 3. New York: Facts on File, 1988. Guyana. Ministry of Economic Development. Statistical Bureau. Guyana: Statistical Digest, January-December 1980. Georgetown: Bureau, 1980. Hintzen, Percy C. The Costs of Regime Survival: Racial Mobilization, Elite Domination, and Control of the State in Guyana and Trinidad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Jayawardena, Chandra. "Culture and Identity in Guyana and Fiji," Man [London], 15, No. 3, 1980, 430-50. ------. "Religious Belief and Social Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism in British Guiana," Comparative Studies in Society and History [Cambridge, United Kingdom], 8, No. 2, January 1966, 211-40. Jeffrey, Henry B., and Colin Baber. Guyana: Politics, Economics, and Society--Beyond the Burnham Era. Boulder, Colorado: Rienner, 1986. Keyfitz, Nathan, and Wilhelm Fliegler. World Population Growth and Aging: Demographic Trends in the Late Twentieth Century. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. Landis, Joseph B. "Racial Attitudes of Africans and Indians in Guyana," Social and Economic Studies [Kingston, Jamaica], 22, No. 4, December 1968, 426-39. Mandle, Jay R. The Plantation Economy: Population and Economic Change in Guyana, 1838-1960. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973. Manley, Robert H. Guyana Emergent: The Post-Independence Struggle for Nondependent Development. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1982. Moore, Brian L. "The Retention of Caste Notions among the Indian Immigrants in British Guiana During the Nineteenth Century," Comparative Studies in Society and History [Cambridge, United Kingdom], 19, No. 1, January 1977, 96-107. Neuman, Stephanie G. (ed.). Small States and Segmented Societies. New York: Praeger, 1976. 1990 South American Handbook. (Ed., Ben Box.) Bath, United Kingdom: Trade and Travel, 1989. Odie-Ali, Stella. "Women in Agriculture: The Case of Guyana," Social and Economic Studies [Kingston, Jamaica], 35, No. 2, June 1986, 241-89. Potter, Lesley M. "The Post-Indenture Experience of East Indians in Guyana, 1873-1921." Pages 71-92 in Bridget Brereton and Winston Dookeran (eds.), East Indians in the Caribbean: Colonialism and the Struggle for Identity. (Papers presented to a symposium on East Indians in the Caribbean, the University of the West Indies.) Millwood, New York: Kraus International, 1982. Premdas, Ralph R. Party Politics and Racial Division in Guyana. (Studies in Race and Nations Series, No. 4.) Denver: University of Colorado Press, 1973. Rivière, Peter. Individual and Society in Guiana. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Roberts, G.W., and J. Byrne. "Summary Statistics on Indenture and Associated Migration Affecting the West Indies, 1834-1918," Population Studies [London], 20, No. 1, July 1966, 125-34. Rodney, Walter. A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881- 1905. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981. Sanders, Andrew. The Powerless People: An Analysis of the Amerindians of the Corentyne River. (Warwick University Caribbean Studies.) London: Macmillian, 1987. Singh, Chaitram. Guyana: Politics in a Plantation Society. New York: Praeger, 1988. Smith, Raymond T. British Guiana. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1980. ------. Kinship and Class in the West Indies: A Genealogical Study of Jamaica and Guyana. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ------. The Negro Family in British Guiana: Family Structure and Social Status in the Villages. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1956. ------. "Race, Class, and Political Conflict in a Postcolonial Society." Pages 198-226 in Stephanie G. Neuman (ed.), Small States and Segmented Societies. New York: Praeger, 1976. Spinner, Thomas J., Jr. A Political and Social History of Guyana, 1945-1983. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. The Statesman's Year-Book, 1988-1989. (Ed., John Paxton.) New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988. Strachan, A.J. "Return Migration to Guyana," Social and Economic Studies [Kingston, Jamaica], 32, No. 3, September 1983, 121-42. United States. Department of Health and Human Services. Social Security Programs Throughout the World, 1985. Washington: GPO, 1986. Vasil. Jaj K. Politics in Bi-Racial Societies: The Third World Experience. Delhi: Vikas, 1984. World Bank. World Tables, 1983, 2. (3d ed.) Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984. ------. World Tables, 1987. (4th ed.) Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988. ------. Social Indicators of Development, 1989. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. World Education Encyclopedia, 3. (Ed., George Thomas Kurian.) New York: Facts on File, 1987. Chapter 3 Bank of Guyana Statistical Bulletin [Georgetown], June 1990, Tables 1-12. Brock, Philip L., Michael B. Connolly, and Claudio González Vega (eds.). Latin American Debt and Adjustment. New York: Praeger, 1989. Canute, James, and Ivo Dawnay. "Guyana: Financial Times Survey," Financial Times [London], May 26, 1989, 17-22. Commonwealth Advisory Group, Guyana: Economic Recovery and Beyond, August 21, 1989, 1-32. Cumiford, William L. "Guyana." Pages 433-47 in Gerald M. Greenfield and Sheldon L. Maram (eds.), Latin American Labor Organizations. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1987. Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Guyana, Barbados, and Windward and Leeward Islands, 1989-90. London: 1989. Economic Panorama of Latin America, 1988. Santiago, Chile: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, United Nations, 1988. The Europa World Year Book, 1989. London: Europa, 1989. Furtado, Celso. Economic Development of Latin America. (2d. ed.; trans., Suzette Macedo.). (Cambridge Latin America Series.) London: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Greenfield, Gerald M., and Sheldon L. Maram (eds.). Latin American Labor Organizations. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1987. "Guyana Opens Up," Mining Journal [London], February 24, 1989, 139. "Guyana: Poor Man's Gold Rush," Economist [London], May 12, 1990, 42, 46. Inter-American Development Bank. Economic and Social Progress in Latin America: Regional Integration. Washington: 1989. Joffe, George. "Guyana," South [London], No. 109, November 1989, 1-22. Lapper, Richard. "Guyana Wakes Up," South [London], No. 95, September 1988, 34-38. Premdas, Ralph R. "Guyana: Socialist Reconstruction or Political Opportunism?" Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 20, No. 2, May 1978, 133-63. Sjaastad, Larry A. "Debt, Depression, and Real Rates of Interest in Latin America." Pages 21-39 in Philip L. Brock, Michael B. Connolly, and Claudio González-Vega (eds.), Latin American Debt and Adjustment. New York: Praeger, 1989. South American Economic Handbook. London: Euromonitor, 1986. Statistical Abstract of Latin America, 27. (Eds., James Wilkie and Enrique Ochoa.) Los Angeles: University of California at Los Angeles Latin American Center, 1989. Thomas, Clive Y. "Foreign Currency Black Markets: Lessons from Guyana," Social and Economic Studies [Kingston, Jamaica], 38, No. 2, 137-84. Thorp, Rosemary (ed.). Latin America in the 1930s. London: Macmillan, 1984. Tomlinson, Alan. "Guyana Seeks Foreign Help to Develop Wealth," Washington Post, January 19, 1989. United States. Agency for International Development. Latin America and the Caribbean: Selected Economic Data. Washington: 1992. ------. Department of State. "Foreign Economic Trends Report: Guyana," Foreign Economic Trends Report, July 1990, 1-12. ------. Department of State. "Investment Climate Statement: Guyana," Investment Climate Statement, June 1990, 1- 7. World Bank. World Debt Tables. Washington: 1989. Worrell, DeLisle. "The Impoverishment of Guyana." Pages 79-109 in Rosemary Thorp (ed.), Latin America in the 1930s. London: Macmillan, 1984. ------. Small Island Economies. New York: Praeger, 1987. (Various issues of the following publications were also used in the preparation of this chapter: Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Guyana, Barbados, and Windward and Leeward Islands [London]; Economic [London]; Financial Times [London]; Guyana Business [Georgetown]; Guyana Chronicle [Georgetown]; the International Monetary Fund's monthly International Financial Statistics; Latin America Economic Report [London]; Latin America Regional Report [London]; South [London]; and Stabroek News [Georgetown].) Chapter 4 Bio Data: His Excellency Cde. H.D. Hoyte S.C., Leader of the People's National Congress, President of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Georgetown: Government of Guyana, 1986. Braveboy-Wagner, Jacqueline Anne. The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. Brotherson, Festus Jr. "Burnham-Bashing: Hoyte Fiddles While Guyana Burns," Caribbean Review, 3, No. 3, July-September 1990, 16, 17, 79, 81, 82. ------. "Hoyte Takes the Other Road," Caribbean Contact [Bridgetown, Barbados], 18, No. 3, November-December 1990, 8, 9. Burrowes, Reynold A. The Wild Coast: An Account of Politics in Guyana. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1984. Campbell, Nills Learmond. "Disunity Hoyte's Trump Card," Caribbean Contact [Bridgetown, Barbados], 18, No. 3, November-December 1990, 8. Despres, Les A. Cultural Pluralism and Nationalist Politics in Guyana. Chicago. Rand McNally, 1967. Fauriol, George A. Foreign Policy Behavior of Caribbean States: Guyana, Haiti, and Jamaica. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1984. French, Howard W. "Guyana Marxist, Mellowed, Makes a Comeback," New York Times, July 5, 1991, A10. "Guyana Teetering," Economist [London], June 22, 1991, 46, 48. Hope, Kempe Ronald. Guyana: Politics and Development in an Emergent Socialist State. New York: Mosaic Press, 1985. Jagan, Cheddi. The West on Trial. New York: International, 1972. Jeffrey, Henry B., and Colin Baber. Guyana: Politics, Economics, and Society--Beyond the Burnham Era. Boulder, Colorado: Rienner, 1986. Lall, Kellawan. "Rise and Fall of the G$," Mirror [Georgetown], 1027, August 25, 1991, 1, 4. Manley, Robert H. Guyana Emergent: The Post-Independence Struggle for Nondependent Development. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Schenkman, 1982. Nagamootoo, Moses. "53,000 Shut Off from Voters' List," Mirror [Georgetown], 1027, August 25, 1991, 1, 4. Naipaul, Shiva. Journey to Nowhere: A New World Tragedy. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986. Singh, Chattram. Guyana Politics in a Plantation Society. New York: Praeger, 1988. Spinner, Thomas J., Jr. A Political and Social History of Guyana, 1945-1983. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. Chapter 5 Andrade, John (ed.). World Police and Paramilitary Forces. New York: Stockton Press, 1985. Ashby, Timothy. The Bear in the Backyard: Moscow's Caribbean Strategy. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books, 1987. Bell, Judith. "Guyana-Suriname." Pages 346-53 in Alan J. Day (ed.), Border and Territorial Disputes. Harlow, United Kingston: Longman Group, 1987. ------. "Guyana-Venezuela." Pages 346-53 in Alan J. Day (ed.), Border and Territorial Disputes. Burnt Mill, United Kingdom: Longman, 1987. Braveboy-Wagner, Jacqueline Anne. The Venezuela-Guyana Border Dispute. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984. Damore, Kelley. "Dispute over Essequibo Coast," Washington Report on the Hemisphere, 8, No. 21, July 20, 1988, 1-6. Encyclopedia of the Third World, 2. (Ed., George Thomas Kurian.) New York: Facts on File, 1987. Encyclopedia of the World's Air Forces. (Ed., Michael J.H. Taylor) New York: Facts on File, 1988. English, Adrian J. Armed Forces of Latin America. London: Jane's, 1984. The Europa World Year Book: 1990, 1. London: Europa, 1990. "GDF Signs Protocol with Venezuelan Army," Caribbean News Agency [Bridgetown, Barbados], October 12, 1990. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: Latin America. (FBIS-LA-90-199.) 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"Systems of Domination after Slavery: The Control of Land and Labor in the British West Indies after 1838," Comparative Studies in Society and History [Cambridge, United Kingston], 23, No. 4, 1981, 591-619. Bolland, O. Nigel, and Assad Shoman. Land in Belize, 1765- 1871. Kingston, Jamaica: Institute of Social and Economic Research, 1977. Broad, David. "Belize: On the Rim of the Cauldron," Monthly Review, 1984, 38-42. Burdon, Sir John Alder (ed.). Archives of British Honduras. (3 vols.) London: Sifton Praed, 1931-35. Cacho, C.P. "British Honduras: A Case of Deviation in Commonwealth Caribbean Decolonization," New World Quarterly [Kingston, Jamaica], 3, No. 3, 1967, 33-44. Carnegie, Charles V. (ed.). Afro-Caribbean Villages in Historical Perspective. Kingston, Jamaica: African- Caribbean Institute of Jamaica, 1987. Chase, Arlen F., and Prudence M. Rice (eds.). The Lowland Maya Postclassic: Questions and Answers, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985. Clegern, Wayne M. "British Honduras and the Pacification of Yucatan," The Americas, 18, 1962, 243-55. ------. British Honduras: Colonial Dead End, 1859-1900. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1967. Craig, Alan K. "Logwood as a Factor in the Settlement of British Honduras," Caribbean Studies [Río Piedras, Puerto Rico], 9, 1969, 53-62. Cross, Malcolm, and Gad Heuman (eds.). Labour in the Caribbean: From Emancipation to Independence. London: Macmillian, 1988. De La Haba, Louis. "Belize: The Awakening Land," National Geographic, 141, No. 1, 1972, 124-46. Dobson, Narda. A History of Belize. London: Longman, 1973. Edgell, Zee. 4, 319-25. Fernandez, Julio A. Belize: Case Study for Democracy in Central America. Brookfield, Vermont: Gower, 1989. Fox, David J. "Recent Work on British Honduras," Geographical Review, 52, 1962, 112-17. Grant, Cedric H. "The Cultural Factor in B.H. Politics," New World Quarterly [Kingston, Jamaica], 3, No. 4, 1967, 53- 55. ------. The Making of Modern Belize: Politics, Society, and British Colonialism in Central America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Gregg, Algar Robert. British Honduras. London: HMSO, 1968. Gregory, James. "The Modification of an Interethnic Boundary in Belize," American Ethnologist, 3, No. 4, 1976, 683- 709. ------. "Pioneers on a Cultural Frontier: The Mopan Maya of British Honduras." (Ph.D. dissertation.) Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1972. Hammond, Norman. "The Prehistory of Belize," Journal of Field Archaeology [Belize City], No. 9, 1982, 349-62. Henderson, Peta M. "The Context of Economic Choice in the Rural Sugar-Growing Area of British Honduras." (M.A. thesis.) Montreal: McGill University, 1969.) Herrmann, Eleanor K. "Health Care in Nineteenth Century British Honduras," Social Science and Medicine, 14, No. A, 1980, 353-56. Highfield, Arnold, and Albert Valdman. Historicity and Variation in Creole Studies. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Karoma, 1981. Howard, Michael C. "Ethnicity and Economic Integration in Southern Belize," Ethnicity, 7, 1980, 119-36. Humphreys, R.A. The Diplomatic History of British Honduras: 1638-1901. London: Oxford University Press, 1961. Jamail, Milton. "Belize: Still Struggling for Independence," NACLA Report on the Americas, 18, No. 4, 1984, 8-10. ------. "Belize: Will Independence Mean New Dependence?" NACLA Report on the Americas, 18, No. 4, 1984, 13-16. Jones, Grant D. "Levels of Settlement Alliance Among the San Pedro Maya of Western Belize and Eastern Peten, 1857-1936." Pages 139-89 in Grant D. Jones (ed.), Anthropology and History in Yucatan. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977. ------. "Los Caneros: Sociopolitical Aspects of the History of Agriculture in the Corozal Region of British Honduras." (Ph.D. dissertation.) Waltham, Massachusetts: Brandeis University, 1968.) ------. Maya Resistance to Spanish Rule: Time and History on a Colonial Frontier. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1989. Jones, Grant D. (ed.). Anthropology and History in Yucatan. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977. Jones, Grant D., Elizabeth Graham, and Robert R. Kautz. "Archaeology and Ethnohistory on a Spanish Colonial Frontier: An Interim Report on the Macal-Tipu Project in Western Belize." Pages 206-14 in Arlen F. Chase and Prudence M. Rice (eds.), The Lowland Maya Postclassic: Questions and Answers. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985. Kearns, Kevin C. "Belmopan: Prospects of a New Capital," Geographical Review, 43, No. 2, 1973. Mackie, Euan W. "New Light on the End of Classic Maya Culture at Benque Viejo, British Honduras," American Antiquity, 27, 1961, 216-24. McLeish, J. "British Activities in Yucatan and the Moskito Shore in the Eighteenth Century." (M.A. thesis.) London: University of London, 1926. Medina, Lauri Kroshus. "Content for Continuity or Change: A Local- Level View of the Organization of Power Relations in the Belizean Citrus Industry," Caribbean Studies [Río Piedras, Puerto Rico], 23, Nos. 3 and 4, 1990, 51-67. Menon, P.K. "The Anglo-Guatemalan Dispute over the Colony of Belize (British Honduras)," Journal of Latin American Studies, 2, No. 2, 1979, 343-71. Minkel, Clarence W., and Ralph H. Alderman. A Bibliography of British Honduras, 1900-1970. East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1970. Moberg, Mark A. "Between Agency and Dependence: Belizean Households in a Changing World System." (Ph.D. dissertation.) Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angeles, 1988. ------. "Class Resistance and Class Hegemony: From Conflict to Co- optation in the Citrus Industry of Belize," Ethnology, 29, No. 3, 1990, 189-207. Muntsh, Albert. "Xaibe: A Mayan Enclave in Northern British Honduras," Anthropological Quarterly, 34, 1961, 121- 26. Naylor, R.A. "British Commercial Relations with Central America 1821-51." (Ph.D. dissertation.) New Orleans: Tulane University, 1958. Parvenu, M. André. "Refugee Migration and Settlement in Belize: The Valley of Peace Project." (M.A. thesis.) Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1986. Scholes, France V., and Sir Eric Thompson. "The Francisco Perez Probanza of 1654-1656 and the Matricular of Tipu (Belize)." Pages 43-68 in Grant D. Jones (ed.), Anthropology and History in Yucatan. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977. Setzekorn, William David. Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of the New Nation of Belize. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1981. Shoman, Assad. Party Politics in Belize, 1950-1986. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions, 1987. Taylor, Douglas M. The Black Carib of British Honduras. New York: Wenner-Gren Foundation, 1951. Thorndike, Anthony E. "Belizean Political Parties: The Independence Crisis and After," Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics [London], 21, No. 2, 1983, 195-211. United Kingdom. British Honduras Land Use Survey. Land in British Honduras: A Report of the British Honduras Land Use Survey Team. London: HMSO, 1959. Waddell, D.A.G. British Honduras: A Historical and Contemporary Survey. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981. Wilk, Richard R. "Agriculture, Culture, and Domestic Organization among the Kekchi Maya." (Ph.D. dissertation.) Tucson: University of Arizona, 1981. Woodward, Ralph Lee. Belize. Oxford: Clio Press, 1980. Zammit, J. Ann. The Belize Issue. London: Latin America Bureau, 1978. (Various issues of the following publcations were also used in the preparation of this chapter: América Indígena [Mexico City]; Caribbean Quarterly [Kingston, Jamaica]; Caribbean Review; and Journal of Belizean Affairs [Belize City].) Chapter 7 Ashcraft, Norman. Colonialism and Underdevelopment: Processes of Political Economic Change in British Honduras. New York: Teachers College Press, 1973. Belize. Central Statistical Office. Abstract of Statistics, 1986. Belmopan, Belize: 1987. Bolland, O. Nigel. Belize: A New Nation in Central America. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1986. ------. Colonialism and Resistance in Belize: Essays in Historical Sociology. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions, 1988. ------. "Race, Ethnicity, and National Integration in Belize." (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. Brockman, C. Thomas. "Ethnic and Racial Relations in Northern Belize," Ethnicity, 4, 1977, 246-62. Esgood, Brule. "The Belize National Survey," International Third World Studies Journal, 1, No. 2, Fall 1989, 263-76. Everitt, J.C. "The Growth and Development in Belize City," Belizean Studies [Belize City], 14, No. 1, 1986, 2- 45. ------. "The Recent Migrations of Belize, Central America," International Migration Review, 18, No. 2. 1984, 319- 25. ------. "The Torch Is Passed: Neocolonialism in Belize," Caribbean Quarterly [Mona, Kingston, Jamaica], 33, Nos. 3-4, 1987, 42-59. Federal Republic of Germany. Statistisches Bundesamt. Länderbericht Belize, 1987. (Statistik des Auslandes Series.) Wiesbaden: 1987. ------. Statistisches Bundesamt. Länderbericht Belize, 1989. (Statistik des Auslandes Series.) Wiesbaden: 1989. Foster, B. Heart Drum. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions, 1986. Godfrey, G. The Sinners Bosonoud. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions, 1987. Grant, Cedric H. The Making of Modern Belize: Politics, Society, and British Colonialism in Central America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Hartshorn, Gary, et al. Belize: Country Environmental Profile. Belize City: R. Nicolait, 1984. Hyde, Evan. "Celebrations and Contentions," Amandala [Belize City], No. 940, 1987, 1. Jamail, Milton. "Belize: Still Struggling for Independence. NACLA Report on the Americas, 18, No. 4, 1984, 8-10. ------. "Belize: Will Independence Mean New Dependence?" NACLA Report on the Americas. 18, No. 4, 1984, 13-16. Jones, Grant D. The Politics of Agricultural Development in Northern British Honduras. Winston-Salem, North Carolina: Wake Forest University, 1971. Krohn, Lita (ed.). Readings in Belizean History. Belize City: Belizean Studies, St. John's College, 1987. Lent, John. "Country of No Return: Belize since Television," Belizean Studies [Belize City], 17, No. 1, 1989, 14- 36. Roberts, S.A. "Recent Demographic Trends in Belize." Pages 9-21 in Society for Promotion of Education and Research, Belize: Ethnicity and Development. Belize City: 1987. Rosser, C., L. Snyder, and S. Chaffee. "Belize Release Me, Let Me Go: The Impact of Mass Media on Emigration in Belize," Belizean Studies [Belize City], 14, No. 3, 1986, 1- 30. Rutheiser, Charles. Culture, Schooling, and Neocolonialism in Belize. (Ph.D. dissertation, Johns Hopkins University, 1991.) Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1991. Society for the Promotion of Education and Research. "Belize: Ethnicity and Development." (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. South America, Central America, and the Caribbean, 1991. London: Europa, 1991. Topsey, Harriot. "The Ethnic War in Belize." (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. United States. Agency for International Development. Belize: Country Development Strategy, Washington: GPO, 1983. ------. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook, 1989. Washington: GPO, 1990. Wilk, Richard R. "Consumer Goods as Dialogue about Development," Culture and History [Copenhagen], 7, 1989, 79-100. ------. "Mayan Ethnicity in Belize," Cultural Survival Quarterly, 10, 1986, 73-77. Chapter 8 Ashcraft, Norman. Colonialism and Underdevelopment: Processes of Political Economic Change in British Honduras. New York: Teachers College Press, 1973. Barry, Tom. Belize: A Country Guide. Albuquerque, New Mexico: Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center, 1989. ------. Inside Belize. Albuquerque, New Mexico: Inter- Hemispheric Education Rsource Center, 1992. Belize. Government Information Service. Belize in Figures. Belmopan: 1991. Belize. Off To a Great Start: Mid-Term Report. Belize City: Government Printery, 1992. Bolland, O. Nigel. Belize: A New Nation in Central America. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1986. ------. The Formation of a Colonial Society: Belize from Conquest to Crown Colony. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. Carey Jones, N.S. The Pattern of a Dependent Economy: The National Income of British Honduras. Westport, Connecticut, Greenwood Press, 1972. Caribbean Development Bank. Annual Economic Report 1990: Belize. Bridgetown, Barbados: 1991. Demas, William G., The Economics of Development in Small Countries. Montreal: McGill University Press, 1965. Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile: Belize, Bahamas, Bermuda, 1989-90. London: 1989. ------. Country Profile: Belize, Bahamas, Bermuda, 1991- 92. London: 1991. Federal Republic of Germany. Statistisches Bundesamt. Länderbericht Belize, 1989. (Statistik des Auslandes Series.) Wiesbaden: 1989. Furley, Peter A. Geography of Belize. London: Collins, 1974. Grant, Cedric H. "Belize: Multiple External Orientation: The Caribbean Dimension." (Paper presented at the Twelfth International Congress of the Caribbean Studies Association, 1987.) Belize City: 1987. Hartshorn, Gary. Belize: Country Environmental Profile, A Field Study. Belize City: R. Nicolait, 1984. International Monetary Fund. Balance of Payment Statistics. Washington: 1991. MacDonald, Scott B., Margie Lindsay, and David L. Crumm (eds.). The Global Debt Crisis. London: Pinter, 1990. MacDonald, Scott B., and Georges A. Fauriol (eds.). The Politics of the Caribbean Basin Sugar Trade. New York: Praeger, 1991. Mitchell, Harold. Europe in the Caribbean. New York: Cooper Square, 1973. Setzekorn, William David. Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of the New Nation of Belize. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981. Society for the Promotion of Education and Reseaech. "Belize: Ethnicity, and Development." (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. United States. Agency for International Development. Latin America and the Cribbean: Selected Economic Data. Washington: 1992. World Bank. Belize, Economic Report. Washington: 1984. ------. The Caribbean: Export Preferences and Performance. Washington: 1988. ------. World Bank Atlas. Washington: 1990. Zammit, J. Ann. The Belize Issue. London: Latin America Bureau, 1978. (Various issues of the following publications were also used in the preparation of this chapter: Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report: Belize, Bahamas, Bermuda [London].) Chapter 9 Barry, Tom. Belize: A Country Guide. Albuquerque, New Mexico: Inter-Hemispheric Education Resource Center, 1989. Belize. Government Information Service. How We Are Governed. Belize City: 1990. ------. Independence Secretariat. Belize: New Nation in Central America. Belize City: Government Printery, 1972. ------. Ministry of Education. Belize Today: A Society in Transformation. Belize City: Sunshine Books, 1984. Blaustein, Albert P., and Gilbert H. Flanz (eds.). Constitutions of the Countries of the World. (Series of updated texts, constitutional chronologies, and annotated bibliographies.) Dobbs Ferry, New York: Oceana, 1981. Bolland, O. Nigel. Belize: A New Nation in Central America. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1986. ------. "Race, Ethnicity, and National Integration in Belize." (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. Byrd, Herman. "Oil in Guatemala: An Economic Factor in the Heads of Agreement." Belizean Studies [Belize City], 15, No. 2, 1987, 25-39. Comisión de Asuntos Internacionales. México y sus vecinos: Estados Unidos, Guatemala, y Belice. Mexico City: Partido Revolucionario Institucional, 1982. Dobson, Narda. A History of Belize. London: Longman, 1973. The Europa World Year Book, 1989. 1. London: Europa, 1989. Fernandez, Julio A. Belize: Case Study for Democracy in Central America. Brookfield, Vermont: Gower, 1989. Halsbury Laws of England. (3d ed.) London: Butterworth, 1953. Palacio, Myrtle. "Elections in Belize City--Who Is Participating?" (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. Sawatzky, Harry Leonard. They Sought a Country: Mennonite Colonization in Mexico. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. Shoman, Assad. "The Making and the Breaking of the UGWU." (Paper presented at the First Annual Studies on Belize Conference, May 25-26, 1987.) Belize City: University Centre, 1987. ------. Party Politics in Belize, 1950-1986. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions, 1987. Waddell, D.A.G. British Honduras: A Historical and Contemporary Survey. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1981. Whatmore, Mark, and Peter Eltringham. The Real Guide: Guatemala and Belize. New York: Prentice Hall Press, 1990. Zammit, J. Ann. The Belize Issue. London: Latin America Bureau, 1978. Chapter 10 Belize. Constitution. Belmopan: Government Printery, 1981. -----. Criminal Code, 1980. Belmopan: Government Printery, 1980. ------. Defence Ordinance, 1977. Belmopan: Government Printery, 1977. ------. Misuse of Drugs Act, 1990. Belmopan: Government Printery, 1990. ------. Security and Intelligence Service Act, 1987. Belmopan: Government Printery, 1987. Bolland, O. Nigel. Belize: A New Nation in Central America. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1986. Caiger, Stephen L. British Honduras Past and Present. London: Allen and Unwin, 1951. Copley, Gregory R. (ed.). Defense and Foreign Affairs Handbook, 1987-88. Washington: Perth, 1987. Dobson, Narda. A History of Belize. London: Longman, 1973. Encyclopedia of the Third World. (Ed., George Thomas Kurian). New York: Facts on File, 1987. English, Adrian J. Regional Defence Profile, No 1. Coulsdon, United Kingdom: Jane's Information, 1988. The Europa World Year Book, 1990. London: Europa, 1990. Fernandez, Julio A. Belize: Case Study for Democracy in Central America. Brookfield, Vermont: Gower, 1989. Government Finance Statistics Yearbook, 1989. Washington: International Monetary Fund: 1990. Grant, Cedric H. The Making of Modern Belize: Politics, Society, and British Colonialism in Central America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. Huskey, James L. (ed.). Lambert's Worldwide Directory of Defense Authorities with International Defense Organizations. Washington: Lambert, 1983. Ingleton, Roy D. Police of the World. New York: Scribner's, 1979. Jane's Fighting Ships, 1990-1991. (Ed., Richard Sharpe.) Coulsdon, United Kingdom: Jane's Information, 1990. Keegan, John (ed.). World Armies. New York: Facts on File, 1984. The Military Balance, 1990-1991. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1990. Setzekorn, William David. Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of the New Nation of Belize. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1981. United Kingdom. Office of Commonwealth Relations. The Commonwealth Yearbook, 1990. London: HMSO, 1990. United States. Department of Defense. Defense Security Assistance Agency. Congressional Presentation for Security Assistance Programs, FY 1992. Washington: GPO, 1991. ------. Department of Defense. Defense Security Assistance Agency. Foreign Military Sales, Foreign Military Construction Sales, and Military Assistance as of September 30, 1990. Washington: GPO, 1990. ------. Department of State. Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1990. (Report submitted to United States Congress, 102d, 1st Session, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, and House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs.) Washington: GPO, 1991. World Bank. World Tables, 1989-90: From the Data Files of the World Bank. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990. World Encyclopedia of Police Forces and Penal Systems. (Ed., George Thomas Kurian). New York: Facts on File, 1989. (Various issues of the following publications were also used in the preparation of this chapter: Belize Today [Belize City]; Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: Latin America; Joint Publications Research Service, Latin American Report; and Soldier [London].) Appendices B-D Abrams, Elliot. "CBI and the U.S. National Interest," Department of State Bulletin, April 1986, 84-89. American Chamber of Commerce of Mexico. Business Opportunities under the Caribbean Basin Initiative, 1987. Mexico City: 1986. Arnold, Guy. Economic Co-operation in the Commonwealth. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1967. Banks, Arthur S. (ed.). Political Handbook of the World, 1985- 86. Binghamton, New York: CSA, 1986. Blake, Byron, and Kenneth Hall. "The Caribbean Community: Administrative and Institutional Aspects," Journal of Common Market Studies, 16, No. 3, March 1978, 211-28. Brock, William. "The Caribbean Basin Initiative." Pages xiii-xiv in Kevin P. Power (ed.), Caribbean Basin Trade and Investment Guide. Washington: Washington International Press, 1984. Caribbean and Central American Action. Caribbean and Central American Databook, 1988. Washington: 1987. "Caribbean Community and Common Market--CARICOM." Pages 108-9 in The Europa Year Book 1987: A World Survey, 1. London: Europa, 1987. "Caribbean Community and Common Market--CARICOM." Pages 663-65 in South America, Central America, and the Caribbean, 1992. London: Europa, 1992. "Caribbean Leaders Back New Moves for Economic Integration," Caribbean Insight, 9, No. 7, July 1986, 1-2. Caribbean Community Secretariat. Report to the Secretary General of Caricom, 1985. Georgetown, Guyana: 1986. ------. Sixth Meeting of the Conference of Caricom Heads of Government. Review of the Caribbean Basin Initiative (Agenda Item No. 11. Conference held July 1-4, 1985.) Georgetown, Guyana: 1985. Chernick, Sidney E. The Commonwealth Caribbean: The Integration Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978. "The Commonwealth." Pages 114-20 in The Europa Year Book 1987: A World Survey, 1. London: Europa, 1987. Day, Alan J. (ed.). Treaties and Alliances of the World. Detroit: Gale Research, 1981. Development Group for Alternative Policies. Supporting Central American and Caribbean Development: A Critique of the Caribbean Basin Initiative and an Alternative Regional Assistance Plan. Washington: 1983. Feinberg, Richard E., Richard Newfarmer, and Bernadette Orr. "Caribbean Basin Initiative: Pros and Cons." Pages 113-28 in Mark Falcoff and Robert Royal (eds.), The Continuing Crisis: U.S. Policy in Central America and the Caribbean. Washington: Ethics and Public Policy Center, 1987. Fox, James W. Is the Caribbean Basin Initiative Working? Washington: United States, Agency for International Development, March 7, 1989. "Glimmer of Hope for CARICOM Trade," Caribbean Insight, 10, No. 7, March 1987, 1. Gonzalez, Anthony P. "Future of Caricom: Collective Self-reliance in Decline?," Caribbean Review, 13, No. 4, Fall 1984, 8-11, 40. Gordon, Richard A., and John Venuti. "Exchange of Information under Tax Treaties--An Update," Tax Management International Journal, 15, August 8, 1986, 292-98. Hall, H. Duncan. Commonwealth: A History of the British Commonwealth of Nations. London: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971. "In the Caribbean," Washington Post, November 3, 1986, A14. Inter-American Development Bank. Economic and Social Progress in Latin America: Regional Integration. Washington: 1984. ------. Ten Years of Caricom. Georgetown, Guyana: 1983. Margain, Eduardo. Development Challenges and Cooperation in the Commonwealth Caribbean. Washington: Inter-American Development Bank, 1983. Martin, Atherton, Steve Hellinger, and Daniel Soloman. Prospects and Reality: The CBI Revisited. Washington: Development Group for Alternative Policies, 1985. Mye, L. Randolph. Caribbean and Central American Export Performance, 1980 to 1987. Washington: GPO, 1988. Overseas Development Council. "The Caribbean Basin Initiative: Update," Policy Focus, No. 3, 1985, 1-8. Palmer, Ransford W. Problems of Development in Beautiful Countries: Perspectives on the Caribbean. Lanham, Maryland: North-South Publishing, 1984. Pastor, Robert. "Sinking in the Caribbean Basin," Foreign Affairs, 60, No. 5, Summer 1982, 1038-58. Payne, Anthony. "Whither Caricom?" The Performance and Prospects of Caribbean Integration in the 1980s," International Journal, 40, Spring 1985, 207-28. Payne, Anthony, and Paul Sutton (eds.). Dependency under Challenge: The Political Economy of the Commonwealth Caribbean. London: Butler and Tanner, 1984. Pregelj, Vladimir N. "CBI II: Expanding the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act." (Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Major Issues System, IB89090.) Washington: June 7, 1989. Ramsaran, Ramesh. "Caricom: The Integration Process in Crisis?" Journal of World Trade Law, 12, 1978, 208-17. Raymond, Nicholas. "Caribbean Basin Revisited," Editorial Research Reports, 1, No. 5, February 1985, 83-100. "The Reagan Caribbean Basin Initiative, Pro and Con," Congressional Digest, 62, No. 3, March 1983, 69-96. Sanford, Jonathan. "Caribbean Basin Initiative." (Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Major Issues System, IB82074.) Washington: May 27, 1983. Sanford, Jonathan, and Lawrence Silverman. Caribbean Basin Initiative: 1983. (Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Major Issues System, IB83222.) Washington: February 13, 1984. Schiavone, Giuseppe (ed.). International Organizations: A Dictionary and Directory. Chicago: St. James Press, 1983. Seyler, Daniel J. "The Politics of Development: The Case of Jamaica and the Caribbean Basin Initiative." (Paper presented at the American University, School of International Service, 1986.) Washington: American University, 1986. South America, Central America, and the Caribbean, 1993. London: Europa, 1992. Stokes, Bruce. "Reagan's Caribbean Basin Initiative On Track, But Success Still in Doubt," National Journal, 17, January 26, 1985, 205-10. Sullivan, Mark P. "Caribbean-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress." (Library of Congress, Congressional Research Service, Major Issues System, IB92047.) Washington: January 29, 1993. Taylor, Jeffrey H. "Efforts Toward Economic Integration: CARICOM as a Case Study." (M.A. thesis.) Washington: George Washington University, 1985. United States. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook, 1991. Washington: GPO, 1991. United States. Congress. 97th, 2d Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Hearings and Markup Before the Committee on Foreign Affairs and the Subcommittee on International Economic Policy and Trade and the Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs: The Caribbean Basin Initiative. Washington: GPO, 1982. ------. Congress. 97th, 2d Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Ways and Means. Subcommittee on Trade. The Administration's Proposed Trade and Tax Measures Affecting the Caribbean Bassin. (Hearings March 17-25, 1982.) Washington: GPO, 1982. ------. Congress. 97th, 2d Session. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations: Caribbean Basin Initiative. Washington: GPO, 1982. ------. Congress. 98th. 1st Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Ways and Means. Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery. Washington: GPO, 1983. ------. Congress. 99th. 2d Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Ways and Means. Subcommittee on Oversight. Review of the Impact and Effectiveness of the Caribbean Basin Initiative. Washington: GPO, 1986. ------. Congress. 100th, 1st Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Ways and Means. Subcommitte on Oversight. Report on the Committee Delegation Mission to the Caribbean Basin and the Recommendations to Improve the Effectiveness of the Caribbean Basin Initiative. Washington: GPO, 1987. ------. Congress. 101th, 1st Session. House of Representatives. Committee on Ways and Means. Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Expansion Act of 1989 (Report Nos. 101-36.) Washington: GPO, 1989. ------. Department of Commerce. Caribbean Basin Initiative: 1986 Guidebook. Washington: GPO, 1985. ------. Department of Commerce. Caribbean Basin Initiative: 1987 Guidebook. Washington: GPO, 1986. ------. Department of Commerce, in cooperation with the United States Agency for International Development. Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI): 1988 Guidebook for Caribbean Basin Exporters. Washington: GPO, 1988. ------. Department of Commerce. International Trade Administration. Caribbean Basin Investment Survey. Washington: GPO, 1990. ------. Department of Commerce. International Trade Administration. Annual Report on the Impact of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act on U.S. Industries and Consumers. (2d Annual Report.) Washington: GPO, 1987. ------. Department of Commerce. International Trade Administration. Annual Report on the Impact of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act on U.S. Industries and Consumers. (3d Annual Report.) Washington: GPO, 1988. ------. Department of Commerce. International Trade Administration. Annual Report on the Impact of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act on U.S. Industries and Consumers, First Report 1984-85. Washington: GPO, September 1986. ------. Department of Labor. Trade and Employment Effects of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act. (3d Annual Report.) Washington: GPO, 1987. ------. Department of Labor. Trade and Employment Effects of the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act. (4th Annual Report.) Washington: GPO, 1988. ------. Department of State. Background on the Caribbean Basin Initiative. (Special Report No. 97.) Washington: GPO, March 1982. ------. Department of State. Bureau of Inter-American Affairs, Office of Regional Economic Policy. Report by the United States Department of State on the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). Washington: GPO, May 1989. ------. Department of State. Bureau of Public Affairs. GIST Index: Caribbean Basin Initiative. Washington: GPO, March 1987. ------. General Accounting Office. Caribbean Basin Initiative: Impact on Selected Countries. (No. GAO/NSIAD-88-177.) Washington: GPO, 1988. ------. General Accounting Office. Caribbean Basin Initiative: Legislative and Agency Actions Relating to the CBI. Fact Sheet for the Chairman, Subcommittee on Oversight. (Report to the Committee on Ways and Means. United States House of Representatives.) Washington: GPO, 1986. ------. General Accounting Office. Caribbean Basin Initiative: Need for More Reliable Data on Business Activity Resulting from the Initiative. (No. GAO/NSIAD-86-201BR.) Washington: GPO, 1986. ------. White House. Office of the Press Secretary. Fact Sheets on the Initiative in President Regan's Speech at Queens Park, St. George's, Grenada. Washington: February 20, 1986. Van Grasstek, Craig. "The Caribbean Basin Initiative: Update," Policy Focus, No. 3, 1985. World Bank. The Caribbean: Export Preferences and Performance. Washington: 1988. Wylie, Scott. "CBI: One Year Later," Business America, January 7, 1985, 2-4. Zegaris, Bruce. "The Caribbean Basin Initiative," Tax Notes, 28, August 26, 1985, 1021-25. _______________________________________________________________________________ British Guiana By Raymond T. Smith CONTENTS FRONT MATTER, PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS NATURAL RESOURCES Ecological Regions; Climate; Rivers and Drainage and Irrigation Problems; Population HISTORY: EARLY SETTLEMENT AND THE PERIOD OF DUTCH CONTROL Prehistory; Discovery and Early Settlement; The Dutch Trading Companies; Storm van 's Gravesande and the Settlement of Demerara; Berbice; The Establishment of Stabroek; Constitutional Development and Conflict HISTORY: BRITISH RULE UP TO 1928 The Social and Economic System based on Slavery; The Abolition Movement and the Growth of Missionary Activity; The Abolition of Slavery and Transition to a Free Society; Indentured Immigration; Constitutional Developments THE ECONOMY Agriculture; Mining; Timber; Manufacturing Industry; Communications; Finance and Banking; The Booker Group; The Problem of Economic Growth SOCIAL STRUCTURE Ethnic Distinctions and Social Class; Religion; Marriage and the Family; Social Integration in a Multi-Racial Society SOCIAL SERVICES Education; Medical Services and Public Health; Social Security; Community Development and Social Welfare GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Political Parties; The Bureaucracy; Local Government; The Federation Issue CONCLUSIONS POSTSCRIPT BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX MAP

British Guiana by Raymond T. Smith was Issued under the auspices of the Royal Institute of International Affairs by OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS, LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO. © Royal Institute of International Affairs and © Oxford University Press 1962, Reprinted 1964. Reprinted in 1980 by Greenwood Press, Connecticut. _________________________________________________________________________________              Raymond T. Smith Copyright 2000:   All Rights Reserved Go To Site Map CHAPTER I NATURAL RESOURCES THE facts of outstanding importance that must influence every stage of any discussion of British Guiana are, that it is a British colony; it has a land area of approximately 83,000 square miles but the bulk of its 557,960 people live and work on only 4 per cent. of its surface; the population is racially heterogeneous and growing rapidly; its economy is primitive being based mainly on the plantation cultivation of sugar, the extraction of bauxite, and the cultivation of rice; the vast majority of its people desire political independence and an increased standard of living.  In many ways it is a typical underdeveloped colonial territory, but its small population.  its proximity to and relations with the West Indian federation, its relatively unexploited hinterland, and its recent political history each serve in one way or another to give it a place of special interest in the Caribbean and even in the pan-American area. ECOLOGICAL REGIONS British Guiana lies on the north-east shoulder of the South American continent, between one and nine degrees of northerly latitude and between 57° and 61° of westerly longitude.  Behind a north-easterly facing coast-line of some 270 miles the land stretches south for about 450 miles to its border with Brazil.  It is flanked by Surinam on the east and Venezuela on the west.  Though larger by far than any of the old British West Indian colonies, its small population and mainly uninhabited territory make it less important economically and politically than either Trinidad or Jamaica for the present.     It is usual to regard the country as falling into three or four geographical zones such as coastal strip, forest, savannah, each having distinctive characteristics.  A threefold scheme such as this, while being adequate for the kind of general outline required here, could be further elaborated to cover other important geological, soil, and climatic variations. I.  Coastal Zone This is a densely populated and intensively cultivated ribbon of land running along most of the coast-line and for a short distance along the banks of the principal rivers.  Origin­ally cleared from mangrove swamp in the eighteenth century, most of it lies below the level of the sea at high tide.  It has been made habitable and cultivable by the construction of complex and costly sea defences and drainage canals.  The coastal zone is composed of alluvial deposits overlaying white sands and clays, and it varies in width from about ten to forty miles.  Cultivation rarely extends beyond about ten miles which represents the present limit of the drainage and irriga­tion schemes, and in any case the rich coastal soils quickly give way to infertile sandy soils farther inland.  The soils of the coastal areas are mainly compact clays, pegasse and riverain silts, with thin bands of reef sands occurring here and there.  The pegasse (tropical peat) soils are usually found behind the coastal clays, and are not extensively used for agricultural purposes usually being toxic and declining rapidly in fertility when cultivated.  The reef sands are less fertile than the heavy clays but are suitable for market‑garden crops when fertilized.  The bulk of agricultural produce is grown on the coastal clays and riverain silts, though cultiva­tion does not extend very far up the rivers.  About 500,000 acres of the coastal zone are under cultivation and another 400,000 are used for cattle rearing. 2.  The Forest Zone South of the coastal plain the land rises to a gently un­dulating area of scrub plain and forest.  Stretches of white sand are broken through by rock structures of various kinds and this is the area of present mineral exploitation, particularly bauxite, gold, diamonds, and manganese.  The soils of the interior are sandy and relatively infertile for the most part, but they support various kinds of forest cover with one or two areas of savannah.  Five main forest types are distinguished covering a total of about 70,000 square miles or about four‑fifths of the total land area.  Rain‑forest occurs on loams, lateritic earths, and loamy sands, while the other principal type, seasonal forest, tends to occur on lighter soils.  On the white sands and thin soils a dry evergreen forest is found.  Marsh forests and swamp forests are found on the pegasse and alluvial clays where these are not drained and cleared.  It is estimated that about l,000 different types of timber are to be found in the forests of British Guiana, and many of these are marketable if they can be extracted and processed.  Of the 70,000 square miles of forest it is estimated that s4,000 square miles are exploitable or potentially exploitable but at present extraction is severely limited by lack of accessibility and the most opti­mistic estimate is that during the next twenty or thirty years no more than 14,000 square miles will be accessible.  There is already a considerable export trade, particularly in hard­woods such as Greenheart (ocotea rodiaei) which is widely used for marine constructional work, and there is no doubt that British Guiana’s forests constitute a national asset of the greatest importance.  In 1957 a local company was formed for the manufacture of particle board which will utilize certain types of timber that are not at present marketable. In addition to timber the forests are also the source of an industry for the collection and export of balata.  Balata is the coagulated latex of the bullet‑wood tree (Manilbara bidentata), and is used for electrical insulation, in the manufacture of golf balls, &c.  The manufacture of charcoal in the upper reaches of the Demerara and Essequibo rivers is an old-established industry, and firewood is collected and widely used in sugar factories and some small power stations. Most of the known mineral wealth of the country, which consists in bauxite, gold, diamonds, columbite, and manganese, falls within the forest and savannah zones.  The extractive industries will be discussed in Chapter IV and it may merely be noted here that further geological exploration, mapping, and the development of communications may reveal unexpected mineral deposits.  It should also lead to a more intensive use of deposits that are at present uneconomic to extract.  A widespread belief in the ‘vast untapped resources of the interior’ has been a constant, and often politically influential, element throughout Guiana’s history. 3.  The Savannahs The main savannah area, the Rupununi, lies in the south­western part of the country and comprises an area of about 6,000 square miles.  The Kanuku mountain range divides this area into a northern and southern section and accounts for about 1,750 square miles of its area.  Another ‘intermediate’ savannah area of some 2,000 square miles, enclosed by forests, lies about sixty miles inland from the mouth of the Berbice river.  Both the Rupununi and the intermediate savannahs are used for cattle grazing, but the quality of the soils and of the grasses they support is poor, with the result that the number of stock per acre is very small.  Apart from the open grasslands in these savannah areas, there is a limited amount of land suitable for cultivation in the foothills of the mountains and along the flood plains of the principal rivers.  At present these are used by small groups of Amerindians who practise shifting cultivation. CLIMATE The main features of the climate are the high but variable rainfall, high humidity, and the relatively narrow range of variation in temperature.  Rainfall in the coastal zone averages about go inches per annum but a variation between 60 and 1 20 inches is common.  Two wet seasons, from the middle of April to the middle of August and from mid-November to the end of January, are normal but the variability is such that one wet or one dry season may not materialize in a particular year.  As one moves inland the amount of rainfall gradually decreases until in the Rupununi which lies in the rain shadow of the Pakaraima and Kanuku mountains it averages about 60 inches falling between May and August only.  Temperatures on the coast show little diurnal or seasonal variation.  From 1846 to 1956 the mean shade temperature averaged 80 4° F.  with a diurnal variation of about 15° F.  The relative humidity is high; mean relative humidity varies from 88 per cent.  in the mornings to 75 per cent.  in the afternoons, but on the coast the steady sea-breezes mitigate its effect, and make the climate extremely pleasant for a low- lying tropical country.  In the interior the temperatures are somewhat higher and the range rather wider.  British Guiana lies to the south of the hurricane belt so that it is free from at least one natural disadvantage. RIVERS AND DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION PROBLEMS The word Guiana is of Amerindian origin and is reputed to mean ‘Land of Waters’.  No more fitting name could be devised for the country in view of the past and present importance of water-control as the condition for profitable occupation of the land.  Apart from the problems created by the low-lying nature of the densely populated coastlands, the complex river systems which cover the whole country create special problems of their own.  Being part of the watershed system of the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, British Guiana is traversed by rivers carrying huge quantities of water from deep within the hinterland.  Heavy and fluctuating rainfall results in extensive flooding all over the country, and even in the forest and Rupununi savannah areas extensive swamp conditions are to be found.  Up to the present the question of controlling water supplies has only been important in the coastal zone, but future extensions of the habitable area of the colony will have to take the same problem into account.  Although the river systems are extensive, covering the whole country in fact, they are of limited navigational value owing to the presence of rapids not very far inland and to the existence of bars at their mouths.  Three of the principal rivers, the Demerara, Berbice, and Courantyne, have extremely low- lying drain basins, which greatly reduces the possibility of their ever being used for the generation of hydro-electricity on a large scale.  Some of the tributaries of the other main river, the Essequibo, rise in the Pakaraima mountain range and have a sufficient number of falls and rapids to make the construction of generating plants feasible provided that the problem of transporting the power to places where it is needed can be overcome.  Despite the limitations on navigation the rivers do provide the main means of transportation to and from the timber-extracting and mining areas.  The Demerara river is navigable by shallow-draught ocean-going vessels for 60 miles above its mouth, the Essequibo for about 40 miles, the Berbice for 100 miles, and the Courantyne for 60 miles.  Light river craft are used on many of the other rivers and creeks as well as on the drainage canals in the coastal zone.  It seems likely that good drainage and irrigation will be necessary for profitable land use almost anywhere in the country, but so far the problem has been mainly confined to the area of intensive use, the coastal zone.  Much as one may admire the initiative and skill of the planters who first settled the Guiana coastlands, each reclaiming as he did his own section of land from the sea, it is less easy to find cause for admiration at subsequent improvements.  Even today the basis of the whole system of drainage and irrigation is the individual ‘estate’ of about 2,000 acres, though most of the sugar plantations are now developed to a stage where each one has an integrated system embracing its whole area of up to 14,000 acres.  The simplest and most common lay-out of an estate consists of a long narrow parallelogram of land up to seven miles long by about a quarter to half a mile wide, stretching inland from a narrow sea frontage.  It has a sea‑wall at the front to keep out the sea at high tides, a dam at the opposite end to keep out swamp‑water, dams running the whole length of either side, and a main drainage canal equipped with a sluice to permit of the discharge of accumu­lated rain water into the sea at low tide if necessary.  Until very recently all the operations of digging, weeding, and cleaning these drainage and irrigation trenches were per­formed by manual labour.  Recently drag‑line excavators have been introduced but have still not completely replaced ‘shovel‑men’. The obvious necessity is for more comprehensive systems of water‑control embracing very large areas of land, but capital, organization, and determination have all been lacking in some degree until recently.  New schemes are at present being planned, and some are in operation, but they represent only a fraction of what will be necessary if the area of land under cultivation is to be substantially increased.